Introduction to Workforce Planning in Dynamic Environments
In today’s competitive landscape, project-driven organizations face the challenge of aligning their workforce with rapidly changing project demands. Effective workforce planning (WFP) has become a strategic necessity to ensure resource availability, skill alignment, and operational agility. This article explores comprehensive approaches, best practices, tools, and strategic insights to simplify and optimize workforce planning, making it accessible and actionable for project-oriented businesses.
Understanding the Core Principles of Workforce Planning
What are the process steps in Workforce Planning (WFP) such as demand evaluation, capacity estimation, and gap analysis?
Workforce Planning (WFP) involves a systematic series of steps designed to ensure organizations have the right people, with the right skills, at the right time. The initial step is demand evaluation, where the future staffing needs are forecasted based on upcoming projects, skill requirements, and organizational goals. Different models like Labor Multiplier, Linear Regression, or System Dynamics are utilized to predict staffing needs considering project size, duration, and complexity.
Next is capacity estimation, which assesses the current workforce's ability to meet forecasted demands. Techniques such as Stock and Flow models, System Dynamics, or Markov processes are used to analyze workforce availability, skills, and mobility. This step helps identify surplus or shortages in talent, informing strategic hiring, training, or reallocations.
The final step, gap analysis, involves comparing future demand with current capacity to identify discrepancies. This analysis guides decision-makers on necessary actions, such as recruiting new talent, upskilling existing staff, or adjusting project timelines. Continual review of demand and capacity forecasts ensures adaptability to changing project scopes and market conditions.
What are the fundamental concepts and models used in workforce demand forecasting and capacity assessment?
For demand forecasting, organizations leverage various models to predict future staffing needs. Models such as the Labor Multiplier relate project or sales volume to staffing requirements, while Linear Regression and Econometric models analyze historical data trends to project future needs. System Dynamics and Gray models add complexity by simulating feedback loops and handling uncertain data.
Capacity assessment relies on models that evaluate current workforce strengths and predict availability. Stock and Flow models track workforce inflows (hiring, training) and outflows (attrition, transfers). Markov models assess workforce mobility and skill retention over time. System Dynamics can also simulate the impact of policy changes or external factors on capacity.
Input data for these models come from multiple sources, including internal HR databases, project records, and expert insights. Tools like custom software, spreadsheets, and specialized enterprise platforms support the analysis, often updated monthly or quarterly to reflect the most recent information.
What are best practices for effective workforce planning in project-driven organizations?
Achieving effective workforce planning requires aligning talent strategies with business objectives through ongoing forecasting and data analysis. Best practices include engaging multiple actors such as HR, project managers, and executives in decision-making. Employing scenario planning helps organizations prepare for uncertainties, such as project delays or market shifts.
Regular reviews and updates—monthly or quarterly—ensure plans stay relevant. Leveraging advanced tools and analytics facilitates real-time insights, enabling proactive adjustments. Embedding workforce planning within strategic initiatives promotes agility, reduces costs, and enhances operational efficiency.
Furthermore, fostering a culture of knowledge sharing and continuous improvement helps mitigate issues stemming from inconsistent practices or lack of standardization. Integrating emerging trends like AI-driven insights and remote work considerations further sharpens planning accuracy and responsiveness. Overall, systematic, data-driven, and collaborative approaches underpin successful workforce planning in project-centric contexts.
The Key Actors and Their Roles in Workforce Planning
Who are the involved stakeholders such as HR, project managers, department heads, and executive teams?
Workforce planning in project-driven companies involves several key actors, each playing a vital role in shaping effective strategies. Human Resources (HR) departments often lead the process by gathering data, overseeing workforce development, and ensuring compliance with organizational policies. Project managers contribute critical insights related to project timelines, skill requirements, and resource allocation. Department heads provide detailed knowledge about specific team capabilities and future staffing needs. Executive teams set strategic priorities, approve plans, and ensure alignment with overall business objectives.
These stakeholders work together to develop a comprehensive understanding of current workforce capacities and future demand projections. They utilize data from internal databases, staff insights, and project plans, often supported by specialized tools such as SAP, Microsoft Azure, or customized software platforms. Their collaboration fosters a proactive environment where potential skill gaps and capacity constraints can be identified early.
How does their collaborative engagement enhance WFP outcomes?
Effective collaboration among these diverse actors ensures that workforce planning is aligned with organizational goals and project requirements. When HR, project managers, and leaders communicate regularly, they can adjust plans swiftly in response to changing project scopes or market conditions.
Engaged stakeholders also contribute to more accurate demand forecasting and capacity assessments by sharing expert insights and strategic perspectives. This collective effort leads to better resource allocation, minimizes talent shortages, and reduces overstaffing risks.
Furthermore, involving multiple departments in decision-making encourages transparency and supports skill development initiatives tailored to future needs. Regular updates and shared accountability foster a culture of continuous improvement in workforce management, which directly impacts project success and organizational agility.
Applying Quantitative and Qualitative Models in Demand Forecasting
What are models used for workforce demand forecasting?
Organizations involved in project-driven work often rely on different quantitative models to forecast future workforce demand accurately. These models help estimate how many staff members with specific skills will be needed for upcoming projects. They also assist in aligning staffing levels with strategic business goals.
Among the most used models are the Labor Multiplier, Linear Regression, System Dynamics, Econometric, and Gray models. Each has unique features suited for different scenarios.
The Labor Multiplier model estimates workforce needs by applying a ratio between project outputs and required staffing levels. Linear Regression uses historical data to identify relationships and predict future staffing needs based on variables like project size or market conditions.
System Dynamics takes a holistic view, modeling the interactions and feedback loops within a system to forecast demand over time. Econometric models combine economic theory and statistical techniques to analyze market trends influencing workforce needs. Gray models are particularly useful when data is scarce or uncertain, providing robust predictions in limited-data scenarios.
These models support decision-makers in preparing for future demands, aligning resources, and minimizing gaps between demand and capacity. They are vital tools in strategic workforce planning, ensuring that project-driven organizations have the right number of skilled personnel when needed.
Forecasting Workforce Capacity with Advanced Tools
How does workforce capacity forecasting work in project-driven organizations?
Workforce capacity forecasting is essential for project-driven companies to predict how many skilled workers are available to meet upcoming project demands. To accomplish this, organizations utilize various sophisticated models such as Stock and Flow models, System Dynamics, and Markov models.
Stock and Flow models operate by tracking the current workforce (stock) and projecting the inflow (new hires, transfers) and outflow (retirements, dismissals) over time. This approach provides a clear picture of workforce size and composition at future points.
System Dynamics models simulate the complex interactions within workforce systems, including feedback loops and time delays. This technique helps organizations understand how variables like attrition rates, recruitment rates, and skill development impact capacity.
Markov models analyze the mobility of workers between different employment states or roles, based on transition probabilities. They are particularly useful for forecasting internal career moves, retirements, and external hiring needs.
By combining these models, project-driven companies can accurately estimate their future workforce capacity. This supports proactive resource management, ensuring the right skills are available at the right time to meet project objectives.
| Model Type | Main Function | Typical Use Case | Example Insights |
|---|---|---|---|
| Stock and Flow | Tracks workforce numbers over time | Planning for hiring or retirements | Anticipates workforce growth or decline |
| System Dynamics | Simulates complex interactions | Understanding impact of process changes | Predicts effects of training programs |
| Markov | Analyzes workforce mobility | Internal career progressions | Forecasts internal talent movement |
Overall, these models empower organizations to make data-driven decisions, align workforce supply with project demand, and maintain agility in resource planning.
Leveraging Data for Effective Workforce Planning
Understanding the vital sources of input data is essential for accurate workforce planning. Companies rely on a variety of data types to inform their decisions, ensuring they allocate the right resources at the right times.
Input data typically include internal databases that contain employee information, skills, and previous project experience. Historical data provides trends and patterns useful for forecasting future workforce needs.
Additionally, project-specific information—such as project size, timelines, and required skill sets—helps tailor demand forecasts to upcoming workloads. Expert insights from staff and managers are also valuable, offering qualitative perspectives that complement quantitative data.
By consolidating these diverse data sources, organizations can create accurate demand and capacity models. This comprehensive approach allows for proactive adjustments and strategic workforce decisions. The process promotes better alignment with project objectives and minimizes the risk of resource shortages or excess.
In summary, the most crucial data inputs for workforce planning originate from internal records, historical analyses, specific project details, and expert opinions. These combined insights serve as the backbone for agile, data-driven workforce management.
Tools and Technologies Facilitating Workforce Planning
What tools are used for workforce planning?
Organizations employ a variety of tools to support their workforce planning efforts. These include both custom-developed solutions tailored to specific company needs and widely used commercial platforms. Popular software options encompass SAP Business Planning and Consolidation (BPC), Microsoft Azure, and Oracle, all designed to handle complex data analysis and forecasting tasks.
In addition to these specialized platforms, spreadsheets remain a common choice for many companies due to their flexibility and ease of use. They facilitate data storage, basic modeling, and quick scenario testing.
The selection of tools often depends on the company's size, sector, and specific requirements. They enable organizations to improve accuracy in demand and capacity forecasting, support scenario analysis, and generate detailed reports.
Overall, these technological solutions contribute significantly to structured, timely, and data-driven workforce planning, helping project-driven companies align their resources with strategic objectives.
| Tool Type | Examples | Functions and Benefits |
|---|---|---|
| Specialized Platforms | SAP BPC, Microsoft Azure, Oracle | Support advanced data analysis, complex scenario modeling, and seamless reporting capabilities. |
| Custom Software | Developed internally | Tailored to specific company workflows, allowing flexible integration and unique functionalities. |
| Spreadsheets | Excel, Google Sheets | Cost-effective, accessible, suitable for smaller datasets and quick analysis. |
In today’s competitive project-driven environments, leveraging the right combination of these tools supports better decision-making and resource management.
Frequency and Updates in Workforce Planning Processes
Workforce planning (WFP) in project-driven organizations varies greatly in terms of how often it is refreshed. Many companies opt for monthly updates, allowing them to stay agile and responsive to ongoing project needs and market shifts. Regular, monthly reviews help organizations adjust their resource allocations proactively, preventing skill shortages or excess capacity.
Some organizations prefer updating their workforce plans quarterly or even yearly, often depending on the size of the project portfolio and the sector’s dynamics. Annual updates might suit organizations with stable project schedules and predictable workforce demands, whereas quarterly updates are more common where rapid changes frequently occur.
The choice of update frequency directly impacts the effectiveness of workforce management. Regular reviews facilitate timely course corrections, ensure alignment with strategic goals, and enhance overall project success. They also allow organizations to incorporate new data inputs, such as recent project information and market insights.
For best practices, many companies recommend establishing a routine review cycle, supported by automated tools and accurate data collection. This approach ensures workforce plans remain relevant, helping companies address talent gaps before they impact project delivery.
In summary, the frequency of WFP updates should align with an organization’s operational tempo and strategic needs, with most firms favoring monthly updates for optimal agility.
The Role of Strategic Workforce Planning in Business Governance
How does strategic workforce planning benefit project-driven organizations?
Strategic Workforce Planning (SWP) plays a vital role in supporting the overarching governance frameworks within project-driven companies. It ensures that the right talent is available at the right time to meet long-term business goals. By forecasting future workforce demand through models like Labor Multiplier or Linear Regression, organizations can align staffing levels with upcoming projects and strategic initiatives.
SWP helps organizations anticipate skills gaps, especially as technological advancements—such as automation and AI—alter workforce requirements. This proactive approach reduces risks associated with talent shortages, enabling smoother project execution and improved delivery outcomes.
Embedding SWP into routine operations allows companies to adapt quickly to changes. For example, detailed capacity forecasts—using Stock and Flow or Markov models—support agile resource reallocation, minimizing delays and unnecessary costs. It also promotes a culture of continuous improvement and strategic decision-making.
By leveraging both quantitative data from internal databases and expert insights, SWP fosters more informed choices about talent sourcing, development, and retention. Tools like specialized software platforms or even spreadsheets streamline data analysis, making complex planning manageable and repeatable.
Overall, effective strategic workforce planning acts as a cornerstone of good governance. It aligns human resources with business priorities, enhances resilience, and ensures sustainable growth amid market uncertainties.
Utilizing Technology for Workforce Planning Optimization
Modern workforce planning in project-driven organizations increasingly relies on specialized software solutions to enhance efficiency and accuracy. These digital tools support various stages of planning, staffing, and decision-making, making the process more dynamic and data-driven.
Software platforms provide real-time insights through dashboards and visualization features, allowing managers to monitor workforce capacity, skill gaps, and project demands instantaneously. For example, tools like monday.com employ AI-powered resource matching and scenario modeling, helping managers forecast staffing needs and proactively address potential gaps before they impact projects.
Automation features are another advantage, reducing manual work involved in scheduling, capacity analysis, and data collection. Advanced planning solutions like Workday Adaptive Planning facilitate capacity forecasting, onboarding, and shift management, aligning resources to project timelines and business goals.
Moreover, many systems integrate seamlessly with existing HR databases and enterprise resource planning (ERP) platforms, enabling comprehensive oversight of workforce metrics, performance, and utilization. This integration supports strategic decision-making by providing holistic views of staffing levels, skills, and future needs.
Tools such as Connecteam assist in simplifying shift scheduling and workforce tracking, further streamlining staffing processes. The combined use of these technologies leads to shorter planning cycles, better resource allocation, and ultimately, higher project success rates.
In summary, employing dedicated workforce management solutions not only optimizes planning and staffing activities but also empowers organizations to respond swiftly to changing project requirements, reduce costs, and maintain competitive advantage.
Key Features of Workforce Management Solutions for Project Companies
When selecting workforce management solutions for project-driven companies, it's essential to look for features that support dynamic and complex project environments.
One of the most important aspects is demand forecasting. Effective tools should predict future staffing needs based on project size, timeline, and skill requirements. This involves models like Labor Multiplier, Linear Regression, or System Dynamics to identify gaps and plan accordingly.
Skills tracking and competency management are also crucial. These features help ensure employees are assigned tasks that match their skill sets, improving efficiency and project quality.
Integration capabilities are vital for seamless operation. Workforce solutions should connect smoothly with existing systems such as payroll, project management, or customer relationship management (CRM) tools. Cloud-based platforms like SAP BPC, Microsoft Azure, or Oracle can facilitate this integration.
Given the fast-paced nature of project-driven work, mobility features enable remote access, real-time updates, and on-the-go management, allowing managers and staff to stay informed and agile.
Analytical tools and robust reporting features provide valuable insights into workforce productivity, cost management, and compliance issues. These insights support proactive decision-making and strategic planning.
Finally, employee self-service portals enhance engagement by allowing staff to view schedules, request time off, or update personal information, reducing administrative burden and increasing transparency.
Below is a summary table highlighting essential features for workforce management solutions in project companies:
| Feature | Description | Benefits |
|---|---|---|
| Demand Forecasting | Uses models to predict staffing needs | Optimal resource allocation |
| Skills & Competency Tracking | Monitors employees skills and qualifications | Better task matching and development |
| System Integration | Connects to payroll, CRM, and project tools | Streamlined workflows |
| Mobility & Accessibility | Mobile access for remote management | Flexibility and real-time updates |
| Data Analytics & Reporting | Provides insights into workforce performance | Informed, strategic decision-making |
| Employee Self-Service | Portals for staff to manage schedules and personal info | Increased engagement and efficiency |
Choosing a workforce management system with these features will help project-driven organizations respond swiftly to changing project demands, optimize resource use, and improve overall project success.
Assessing and Comparing Workforce Planning Tools and Services
When organizations need to choose among various workforce planning solutions, they should start by clearly defining their specific goals and the challenges they face. Different companies have unique needs depending on their size, industry, and strategic objectives, so matching tools to these criteria is essential.
A useful approach involves evaluating solutions based on several core features. These include how well the tool can analyze data, integrate with existing HR and project management systems, and scale as the organization grows. User-friendliness and the level of support offered by vendors are also important considerations. Tools with strong customer support and thorough documentation can ease implementation and ongoing use.
Practical testing plays a crucial role. Conducting pilot tests allows organizations to see how a tool performs in real-world scenarios, helping to identify any issues or limitations before full deployment. Gathering feedback from actual users within the company and reviewing case studies or success stories from other clients provides valuable insights into the solutions’ effectiveness.
Another important factor is the type of workforce planning required. Whether the focus is operational, tactical, or strategic influences the choice of tools. For example, advanced forecasting models like scenario planning or predictive analytics are essential for strategic workforce planning.
Finally, the ability of the solution to support current best practices—such as real-time data analysis, talent forecasting, and scenario modeling—will determine its suitability for building a resilient and aligned workforce. Regularly revisiting these criteria ensures the selected tools remain fit for purpose as organizational needs evolve.
| Evaluation Criterion | Description | Additional Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Alignment with goals | Compatibility with organizational objectives | Ensures the tool supports strategic planning |
| Data analytics features | Capabilities for handling and analyzing workforce data | Critical for forecasting accuracy |
| Integration capabilities | Compatibility with existing technology infrastructure | Facilitates seamless workflow |
| Scalability | Ability to grow with the organization | Prevents need for frequent replacements |
| User experience | Ease of use and intuitive design | Encourages widespread adoption |
| Support and training | Vendor support, training resources | Reduces learning curve |
| Pilot testing | Practical trials to assess functionality | Helps in decision-making |
| Customer feedback | Insights from current or previous users | Validates real-world performance |
| Scenario modeling | Ability to run different future workforce scenarios | Supports strategic foresight |
| Cost-effectiveness | Overall value considering features and price | Ensures ROI |
Benefits of Tailored Workforce Planning Solutions for Project Firms
What are the benefits of employing workforce planning solutions tailored specifically for project-driven organizations?
Custom workforce planning tools offer a range of advantages that are crucial for project-focused companies. One primary benefit is the ability to forecast staffing needs more accurately across multiple projects, helping organizations prevent scenarios of over- or under-resourcing. This precision in planning ensures that the right skills are available at the right time, increasing the likelihood of project success.
Enhanced visibility into workforce capacity, skill sets, and workload allows managers to make proactive adjustments. This real-time insight supports timely decisions, reduces delays, and helps meet project deadlines more reliably. Many tailored solutions integrate advanced features such as AI-powered analytics, scenario modeling, and real-time data updates, empowering organizations to adapt swiftly to fluctuating project demands and market conditions.
Furthermore, integrating workforce planning tools with existing systems—such as HR platforms, finance applications, and spreadsheets—streamlines data management. This integration reduces manual effort, minimizes errors, and helps align workforce costs with organizational budgets.
Finally, these customized solutions foster better collaboration between project teams, HR departments, and finance specialists. When all stakeholders work with consistent, accurate data and shared goals, the organization becomes more agile and strategic. This collaborative approach ultimately leads to more effective project execution, improved resource utilization, and increased overall success.
Enhancing Decision-Making for Procurement and Adoption
Workforce planning (WFP) plays a vital role in streamlining procurement decisions and adopting new workforce solutions. By providing clear insights into an organization’s current capacity and future human resource needs, WFP supports strategic sourcing and resource allocation.
One of the main benefits of WFP is its ability to forecast workforce demand using various models like Labor Multiplier, Linear Regression, and System Dynamics. These forecasts help companies identify gaps between current capabilities and upcoming project requirements. This proactive approach allows organizations to plan for talent acquisition, training, or automation, aligning workforce strategies with technological advancements.
Integrating WFP with procurement processes promotes better collaboration between HR, project managers, and external vendors. For example, understanding future staffing needs supports the timely procurement of contingent workers and external services, reducing delays and costs. Additionally, tools such as Vendor Management Systems (VMS) enable efficient management of external labor pools.
By leveraging data from internal databases, historical trends, and expert insights, organizations can run scenario analyses that anticipate possible disruptions or skill shortages. Such foresight ensures agility — allowing quick adaptation to market changes or new project scopes.
In summary, embedding workforce planning into overall business strategy ensures more informed procurement decisions. It creates a resilient organization capable of responding swiftly to emerging demands and technological shifts, ultimately supporting sustained success in a competitive environment.
Summarizing the Strategic and Operational Benefits of Workforce Planning
Workforce planning offers valuable advantages for project-driven organizations by aligning staffing with business goals and project needs. It helps prevent over- or under-resourcing, ensuring the right skills are available at the right time, which boosts project success and timely delivery.
Implementing effective workforce strategies reduces risks related to skills gaps, employee shortages, or misalignment between capacity and demand. Companies can better anticipate future needs, facilitating proactive measures to fill gaps or adjust resource allocation.
Cost savings are a crucial benefit. Accurate planning minimizes unnecessary expenses associated with overstaffing and reduces project delays that can be costly. It also supports strategic sourcing, helping organizations explore efficient talent acquisition and retention methods.
Agility is enhanced through detailed scenario analysis and real-time data insights. Workforce planning enables organizations to quickly adapt to changing project scopes or market conditions, maintaining flexibility and competitiveness.
Overall, tailored workforce planning solutions foster better coordination among project teams, HR, and management. This interconnected approach improves decision-making, boosts efficiency, and aligns workforce development with long-term business objectives.
| Benefit | Description | Impact Area |
|---|---|---|
| Alignment | Ensures staffing matches project and business needs | Operational efficiency |
| Risk Management | Identifies and addresses potential skill gaps or shortages | Project success, stability |
| Cost Reduction | Optimizes resource allocation and minimizes waste | Financial performance |
| Organizational Agility | Facilitates quick response to changes in project demand | Strategic adaptability |
Future Trends and Innovations in Workforce Planning
Emerging Trends Like AI, Remote Work, and Data Analytics, and How They Shape Future WFP Strategies.
The landscape of workforce planning (WFP) is rapidly evolving thanks to technological advancements and changing work environments. Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly integrated into planning processes, enabling organizations to analyze vast amounts of data efficiently. AI-driven tools can predict staffing needs based on project trends, skill requirements, and market conditions, offering more accurate forecasts.
Remote work has become a staple in many industries, influencing how organizations assess capacity and demand. WFP models are now incorporating remote workforce capabilities, enabling better resource allocation across geographically dispersed teams. This shift demands flexible planning approaches that account for remote collaboration, digital skills, and diverse talent pools.
Data analytics plays a critical role in enhancing WFP accuracy. Advanced analytics help synthesize information from internal databases, project histories, and market reports, providing a comprehensive view of workforce dynamics. The use of dashboards and scenario simulations allows decision-makers to explore different strategies and prepare for future uncertainties.
Looking ahead, these trends will continue to mold strategic WFP, fostering more proactive, data-driven, and flexible approaches. Organizations adopting these innovations will better anticipate workforce needs, reduce talent gaps, and respond swiftly to market changes.
How Can Organizations Compare and Select the Right Workforce Planning Tools and Services?
Choosing the appropriate WFP tools requires a strategic evaluation aligned with organizational goals. Initially, organizations should clarify their specific needs—whether operational, tactical, or strategic planning. Key features to consider include data analytics capabilities, integration potential with existing HR and project systems, scalability, ease of use, and vendor support.
Conducting pilot testing with shortlisted tools provides practical insights into usability and performance. Reviewing customer feedback, case studies, and vendor demonstrations can shed light on strengths and limitations. Equally important is assessing whether the tools support trending practices such as scenario planning, predictive analytics, and real-time data processing.
An effective approach involves comparing tools based on how well they facilitate long-term workforce resilience and adaptability. Prioritizing innovative features that cater to future trends, like AI augmentation and remote work management, ensures the organization stays ahead in workforce strategy.
Additional Resources for Future Innovations in Workforce Planning and Technology
For organizations looking to deepen their understanding of upcoming WFP innovations, consulting dedicated research and industry reports is recommended. These sources highlight cutting-edge solutions in AI, data management, and digital transformation tailored for workforce planning.
| Resource Type | Content Focus | Relevance | Link/Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Industry Reports | Latest trends in HR tech and workforce analytics | Extensive market insight | Example: Gartner's Hype Cycle for HR Tech |
| Technology Whitepapers | Deep dives into AI applications in HR | Technical understanding | Example: McKinsey reports on AI in HR |
| Training Platforms | Courses on data analytics and digital HR tools | Skill development | Example: LinkedIn Learning, Coursera |
Adopting innovative tools and practices will equip organizations to navigate the dynamic future of workforce planning, ensuring their talent strategies remain agile and robust.
Wrapping Up: Strategic Workforce Planning for Lasting Success
Effective workforce planning is an indispensable tool for project-driven companies seeking to thrive amid complexity and change. By adopting best practices, leveraging advanced tools, and fostering stakeholder collaboration, organizations can unlock greater agility, optimize resource management, and secure their competitive advantage. Continuous improvement, embracing future trends like AI and remote work, and embedding workforce strategies into broader business frameworks are essential for long-term success. When approached systematically and strategically, workforce planning transforms from a logistical exercise into a powerful driver of project excellence and organizational resilience.
References
- Workforce planning in project-driven companies: a high- ...
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